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\begin{document}


\def\RunningAuthor{Lata~Kanyal~Butola\space\textit{et al.}}
\firstPage{1581}
\articleType{Review Article}
\receivedDate{07 Aug 2020}
\acceptedDate{09 Sep 2020}
\revisedDate{08 Sep 2020}
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\journalDoi{ijrps.v11iSPL4.4341}
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\title{\textbf{Aspects of dietary fibre in health and diseases}}
\author{Lata~Kanyal~Butola\textsuperscript{*}\textsuperscript{1},  
            Anjali~Vaaga\textsuperscript{1},  
            Neelam~Gusain\textsuperscript{2}, 
            Karuna~Kachhwa\textsuperscript{1}~\\[5pt]{\textsuperscript{1}Department of Biochemistry, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Sawangi Wardha, DMIMS, Maharashtra, India}~\\{\textsuperscript{2}Department of Biochemistry, Al Falah School of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Haryana, India}}

\begin{abstract}
Dietary fibre is the name collectively given to the indigestible carbohydrates present in foods. These carbohydrates consist of cellulose, gum, pectin and mucilage. Enzymes of gastro-intestinal tracts in humans do not digest these fibres. Plants are the only source of dietary fibre. It is found in grains, vegetables and fruits. Dietary fibre helps to keep the digestive system healthy, and it is vital in reducing the risk of diseases such as coronary heart disease, diabetes, diverticulosis, haemorrhoids and intestinal cancer. Undigested fibres enter the large intestine where bacteria ferments them. Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen and short-chain fatty acids are the by-products of the fermentation. Soluble fibre and resistant starch also serve as prebiotic and supports the necessary probiotic for digestive health. In grapes, peas, beans and barley, much of the soluble fibre is extracted. When dissolved in the water, a gel-like substance is formed. Soluble fibre helps to support the growth of friendly bacteria needed to maintain a healthy intestinal system. They also help in slowing down the time taken by the food to pass through the stomach into the small intestine, which helps to slow down the absorption of glucose and controls the blood sugar levels and helps in managing diabetes mellitus and keeps you feeling fuller for a longer time. The diets with high fibre intakes are known to have beneficial health effects as they have water holding capacity, helps in adsorption of organic molecules and facilitates its excretion, hypoglycemic effects and hypercholesterolemic effect. The inclusion of fibre rich food in weight-reducing diets is found to helpful since it provides a feeling of fullness without consumption of excess calories. The present review discusses the definition, nutritional properties of dietary fibre and therapeutic functions of dietary fibres in health and diseases.
\end{abstract}\def\keywordstitle{Keywords}

\begin{keywords}Dietary fibre,\newline Nutrition,\newline Health,\newline Diseases
\end{keywords}
\twocolumn[ \maketitle {\printKwdAbsBox}]
\makeatletter{\raggedright\textsuperscript{*}Corresponding Author\par Name:\ Lata~Kanyal~Butola~\\ Phone:\ +91-7892390212~\\  Email:\ Kanyallata1010@gmail.com
        \par}\vspace*{-11pt}\hrulefill\par{\fontsize{12}{14}\selectfont ISSN: 0975-7538}\par% 
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\section{Introduction}
Dietary fibre is known to be a crucial nutrient that will have beneficial health effects. The consumption of dietary fibre has multiple health benefits as it decreases the risk of development of the following diseases: stroke, coronary heart diseases, diabetes, intestinal cancers, obesity, diverticulosis, constipation and other gastro-intestinal disorders. Besides increased intake of dietary fibre helps to improve serum lipid concentration, reduces blood pressure, improves blood sugar, promotes weight loss and tends to enhance immune function \unskip~\citep{891828:20382474}. In 1953, the term dietary fibre was first used as hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin \unskip~\citep{891828:20382487}. Later, Burkitt suggested that individuals improve their dietary fibre intake to increase their stool volume and stool softness. At this point, it was a strictly physiological-botanical explanation. In the 1970s, researchers began to use the term in connection with health-related theories. By the end of the 1970s, the concept of dietary fibre had been extended to include other non-digestible polysaccharides, such as gums and mucilages, which were based on comparisons between Africa and the United Kingdom about fibre intake and disease incidence \unskip~\citep{891828:20382498,891828:20382477}. 

Good source of dietary fibre includes whole grains, vegetables, nuts, legumes, fruits and seeds. Fibre supplements are also available to improve dietary fibre intake. However, most of the experts recommend fibre intake should be done via food only, as this form allows absorption of many micronutrients and bioactive compounds found in high fibrous foods that have their nutritional benefits. And to obtain the beneficial benefits of dietary fibre, 20-30 g should be consumed. Nevertheless, it is not recommended to consume enormous quantities of fibre because it may adversely affect the absorption of proteins and other minerals.

\textbf{Dietary Fiber: Definition}

Dietary fibre is defined as "the edible parts of plants or analogous carbohydrates that resist digestion and absorption within the small intestine of humans, with partially or completely fermentation within the intestine of humans. Dietary Fiber exhibits one or more of laxation, attenuation of blood cholesterol and attenuation of blood glucose'' \unskip~\citep{891828:20382476}. 

Dietary fibre is a broad category of non-digestible food ingredients which incorporates polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, lignin and analogous polysaccharides with an associated health benefit (Table~\ref{tw-baa047e87a1d}) \unskip~\citep{891828:20382486,891828:20382489}. 


\begin{table*}[!htbp]
\caption{\boldmath {Activities of dietary fiber along the entire GastroIntestinal Tract} }
\label{tw-baa047e87a1d}
\def\arraystretch{1.1}
\ignorespaces 
\centering 
\begin{tabulary}{\linewidth}{p{\dimexpr.31130000000000003\linewidth-2\tabcolsep}p{\dimexpr.6887\linewidth-2\tabcolsep}}
\tbltoprule \rowcolor{kwdboxcolor}Sites & Activities\\
\tblmidrule 
Mouth &
  Stimulates saliva secretion\\
Stomach &
  Delays gastric emptying\\
Small Intestine &
  Delays absorption\\
Large Intestine &
  Traps water and binds cations\\
Stool  &
  Softens, enlarges, and prevents straining \unskip~\citep{891828:20382471}\\
\tblbottomrule 
\end{tabulary}\par 
\end{table*}

    
\section{\textbf{Classification of fibre based on solubility}}
\textbf{Soluble fibre}

Soluble fibre gets dissolved in water and forms a gel-like material. They assist in lowering blood sugar and cholesterol levels. Soluble fibre is usually found in oats, beans, peas, apple, carrots, barley, psyllium and citrus foods. 

\textbf{Insoluble fibre}

Insoluble fibre helps in the movement of food through the gastro-intestinal system by increasing stool bulk. Nuts, beans, whole flour, wheat bran, vegetables like cauliflower, potatoes and green beans are good sources of insoluble fibre. Thus, the most suitable dietary fibre is tested in two types, i.e. water-insoluble / less fermented fibres: cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and also water-soluble / well-fermented fibres: pectin, gum and mucilage \unskip~\citep{891828:20382472}.

\textbf{Cellulose}

This is the key component of the cell membrane in plants, most abundant carbohydrate in nature. Cellulose is the unbranched, linear polymer composed of \ensuremath{\beta }-D-glucose units linked through \ensuremath{\beta }-(1-4) glycosidic bonds. Humans cannot digest cellulose due to lack of enzyme cellulose which cleaves \ensuremath{\beta }-glycosidic bonds. Though it is not digestible, cellulose along with other complex carbohydrates forms an integral part of the human diet which has several beneficial effects. Cellulose mechanical strength, biodegradation resistance, low aqueous solubility and acid hydrolysis resistance, low aqueous solubility and acid hydrolysis resistance are the results of hydrogen bonding within microfibrils \unskip~\citep{891828:20382492}.

\textbf{Hemicellulose}

Hemicellulose is cell membrane polysaccharides that are solubilised by aqueous alkali after removal of water-soluble polysaccharides and pectic polysaccharides \unskip~\citep{891828:20382484}. 

\textbf{Lignin}

This is often not a polysaccharide but a complex random polymer comprising approximately 40 oxygenated phenylpropane units, including coniferyl, sinapyl and p-coumaryl alcohols that have undergone extensive dehydrogenative polymerisation \unskip~\citep{891828:20382500}. Lignins are variable in terms of molecular weight and methoxyl content. Lignin is extremely inert due to the strong intramolecular bonding, which incorporates carbon to carbon bonding. Lignin shows more excellent resistance than the other polymer which occurs naturally \unskip~\citep{891828:20382480}. 

\textbf{Pectin}

Pectins are a group of polysaccharides in which the principal component is D-galacturonic acid. They are structural components of cell walls of plants, and they also act as intercellular cementing substance. Pectin is water-soluble, and it is metabolised by colonic bacteria completely. These soluble polysaccharides can decrease the speed of gastric emptying due to their gelling behaviour and may influence small intestinal transit time. This describes the hypoglycemic properties of pectin \unskip~\citep{891828:20382485}. 

\textbf{Gums and mucilages}

These are the sorts of plant fibres that are not components of the cell membrane but produced in specialised secretory plant cells. These are strongly branched polysaccharides forming gels, binds with water, and other organic material. Gums are sticky exudations produced as a response to trauma (i.e. Arabic gum). It consists primarily of gum and Arabic gum. Gum may be a galactomannan derived from the seed of guar (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus). Partial enzymatic hydrolysis leads to the formation of product which will be used as a dietary soluble fibre. Mucilage is secreted into the plant seed endosperm, where it serves to avoid excessive dehydration \unskip~\citep{891828:20382470}. 

Cereals are the primary source of cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose, while fruits and vegetables are sources of pectin, gum and mucilage. A polysaccharide is characterised by the structure of the bond between it and its sugar residues. The chemical makeup of the fibres is complex; the dietary fibres consist of a mixture of chemical substances. The choice of an analytical method for researching fibres depends on the composition of each fibre \unskip~\citep{891828:20382469}. \unskip~\citep{891828:20382497} defined the "good fibre" as having the following characteristics.


  
  \begin{enumerate}
  \item \relax It should not contain any nutritionally offensive components. 
  \item \relax To optimise its use, it must be highly concentrated in a limited quantity. 
  \item \relax It should have no taste or unpleasant odour, colour, or texture effects. 
  \item \relax It should provide a balance between soluble and insoluble fibre with the right presence of bioactive compounds.
  \item \relax It must not impact the food to which it is added, but it must also have an extended time. 
  \item \relax It should function under the processing of food. 
  \item \relax It should have a good picture of the customer.
  \item \relax It should have the expected physiological effects.
  \end{enumerate}
  \textbf{Dietary Fibre Content in Various Foods}

Dietary fibre is naturally found in cereals, vegetables, fruit and nuts. The amount and structure of fibre vary from food to food. Almost all naturally available high-fibre foods contain varying quantities of both soluble and insoluble Dietary fibre \unskip~\citep{891828:20382501}. Whole grain and bran products are the primary sources of cereal dietary fibre. In contrast, the first sources of soluble dietary fibre are meat, vegetables and oat and barley products (soluble \ensuremath{\beta }-glucans)\unskip~\citep{891828:20382481}. A Dietary Reference Intake Standard for Total Dietary Fibre was issued in 2002. This guideline indicated a daily intake of 26 g / d for female adolescents and 31{\textendash}38 g / d for male adolescents. However, consistent with this guideline, total dietary fibre should include not only soluble and insoluble fibre but also functional fibre \unskip~\citep{891828:20382494}.
    
\section{Therapeutic Functions of Dietary Fibre}
Fibre has essential therapeutic effects on the alimentary canal, and many other common disorders that affect most of the populations are related to a coffee intake of dietary fibre. 

\textbf{Dietary Fiber and Constipation}

Chronic constipation affects one in 50 people and increases in incidence with advancing age. Constipation occurs three times more frequently among women than among men and is more common among non-white individuals and in low-income families with little formal education \unskip~\citep{891828:20382473}. Clinical studies have shown the benefits of promoting dietary fibre in the treatment of constipation \unskip~\citep{891828:20382496}. By raising stool weight and volume, fibre decreases colonic transit time and enhances the rectal reflex. Treatment should be focused on raising dietary intake of whole grains, beans, legumes, vegetables and berries. Where dietary compliance may be a problem, for instance, due to an older person's inability to organise food, a purified fibre supplement, like psyllium, may prove beneficial.

\textbf{Dietary fibre and bowel function}

Dietary fibre influences bowel function by raising faecal volume and weight (bulking effect), enhancing stool consistency, decreasing transit time and increasing stool frequency, all of which decrease defecation and prevents discomfort in the stomach and intestines \unskip~\citep{891828:20382468}. The bulking effect is primarily due to non-fermentable fibre, but fermentable fibre may increase bacterial mass and thus increase stool weight and frequency \unskip~\citep{891828:20382493}. Inulin has no insoluble fractions and is quickly degraded inside the intestines; therefore, it is less potential to influence bowel function than grain fibre. Fortunately, inulin has been shown to raise the stool frequency \unskip~\citep{891828:20382495,891828:20382467}.

\textbf{Effects on blood sugar and lipids}

Fibers may affect the metabolism of glucose by decreasing the glycemic load of a meal or by inhibiting the release and absorption of glucose in the intestine. High fibre content improves glycemic control and glucose tolerance and increases the sensitivity of insulin. This benefits diabetic patients who can reduce their drug dose due to improved glucose tolerance. Soluble viscous fibres are mainly associated with attenuated glucose absorption, but insoluble cereal fibres have been shown to improve insulin sensitivity \unskip~\citep{891828:20382475,891828:20382488}.

\textbf{Hypolipidemic effects}

Dietary fibre influence lipid metabolism by reducing plasma lipid levels. Fibre reduces plasma lipid levels by decreasing the absorption of cholesterol within the intestine. Fibre binds to the bile salts and reduces their movements through enterohepatic circulation. These two mechanisms increase the excretion of cholesterol within the sort of bile salts. By its hypolipidemic effects, it helps to stop heart diseases. Intake of barley and oat products reduces total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol in the body \unskip~\citep{891828:20382499,891828:20382491}. 

\textbf{Effects of fibres maintaining Blood pressure}

Many research indicated that high-fibre diets were correlated with a substantial reduction in blood pressure, but these researchers were not well-controlled clinical trials. The effects of accelerated oat fibre intake on vital signs are documented in several reports, with internet findings indicating a modest-to-moderate reduction in systolic and diastolic blood pressure \unskip~\citep{891828:20382483,891828:20382479}.

\textbf{Effects of fibres in Obesity}

Fibers provide a sense of fullness (satiety) and help to avoid excess calories consumption. This plays a crucial role in future weight management. Dietary fibre has been used to treat childhood obesity, with some research indicating that fibre supplements, when applied to conventional weight-control regimens, end up with about 2 kg of additional weight loss \unskip~\citep{891828:20382478}.

\textbf{Dietary fibre and the immune system}

Dietary components and their digestion products are intimately in contact with the vast intestinal system (GALT), and thus the presence of food in the intestine may, therefore, be essential for the proper functioning and development of GALT. In comparison, specific nutrients are known to be critical for the development and performance of the system. There is evidence that the introduction of fermentable fibre to the diet changes the role and structure of the intestines, modifies the assembly of intestinal hormones and is correlated with enhanced whole-body glucose homeostasis also in the absence of disease \unskip~\citep{891828:20382490}.

\textbf{Adsorption of organic molecules}

Organic molecules like bile acids, neutral sterols, carcinogens and toxic compounds can be adsorbed on dietary fibre and facilitates its excretion.

\textbf{Toxicity}

For dietary fibre, no tolerable upper intake limit has been identified. Nevertheless, the Institute of Drugs (IOM) indicated that a tolerable upper intake level could also be needed in the future if supplements or foods containing added functional fibre are to become ubiquitous. Very high rates of consumption may lead to a reduction in the absorption of certain minerals. However, it is not thought that this could contribute to mineral shortages in areas where diets are not restricted to minerals \unskip~\citep{891828:20382482}.
    
\section{Conclusion}
It is indispensable to the know importance of dietary fibre. Dietary fibre is a crucial component of a healthy diet which help in reducing risks of the many health conditions, including cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and keeps the gut system healthy. People can increase these measures by eating high fibre foods, fruits and vegetables. Add a minimum of 21 to 38 grams of fibre per day for optimal health. Start your day with fibre. Add flaxseeds in your routine as they're high in fibre and omega 3 fatty acids, which may lower your total blood cholesterol. Add blueberries, raspberries, blackberries and strawberries in your breakfast. Eat whole fruits rather than drinking juices. Awareness regarding dietary fibre should be given as dietary fibre decreases the health-related risks and help in increasing quality of life.

\textbf{Conflict of Interest}

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest for this study.

\textbf{Funding Support}

The authors declare that they have no funding support for this study.
    

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