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\def\RunningAuthor{Alfred Maroyi }
\firstPage{6196}
\articleType{Review Article}
\receivedDate{21 Jul 2020}
\acceptedDate{21 Aug 2020}
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\title{\textbf{Evaluation of Ethnomedicine and Ethnobotany of \textit{Maerua triphylla} A. Rich. (Capparidaceae)}}
\author{Alfred~Maroyi\textsuperscript{*}~\\[5pt]{Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa}}

\begin{abstract}
\textit{Maerua triphylla} A. Rich. is a shrub or small tree collected from the wild for its edible leaves and also used as traditional medicine. This study is aimed at evaluating the ethnomedicinal and ethnobotanical uses of \textit{M. triphylla}. Results of the current study are based on data derived from several online databases such as Scopus, Google Scholar, PubMed and Science Direct, and pre-electronic sources such as scientific publications, books, dissertations, book chapters and journal articles. This study revealed that the fruit, leaf, root, stem bark and twig infusion and/or decoction of \textit{M.} \textit{triphylla } are mainly used as ethnoveterinary medicine, aphrodisiac and antidote for poisoning, and traditional medicine for rheumatism, boils, cancer, respiratory problems, snakebite, headache, migraine and gastro-intestinal problems. Phytochemical compounds identified from dried aerial parts and branches of \textit{M. triphylla} include betaines and quaternary ammonium compounds such as 3-hydroxyprolinebetaine, glycine betaine, proline betaine and 3-hydroxy-1,1-dimethyl pyridinium\textit{. }Preliminary ethnopharmacological research revealed that \textit{M. triphylla} leaf extracts have acaricidal and cytotoxicity activities. Documentation of the medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of \textit{M. triphylla} is important as this information provides baseline data required for future research focusing on ethnopharmacological properties of the species.\textit{ Maerua triphylla }should be subjected to detailed phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological evaluations aimed at correlating its medicinal uses with its phytochemistry and pharmacological properties.
\end{abstract}\def\keywordstitle{Keywords}

\begin{keywords}Capparaceae,\newline Indigenous Pharmacopoeia,\newline Maeruatriphylla,\newline Traditional Medicine
\end{keywords}
\twocolumn[ \maketitle {\printKwdAbsBox}]
\makeatletter{\raggedright\textsuperscript{*}Corresponding Author\par Name:\ Alfred~Maroyi~\\ Phone:\ 27406022322~\\  Email:\  amaroyi@ufh.ac.za
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\section{Introduction}
\textit{Maerua triphylla} A. Rich. is a shrub or small tree belonging to the Capparaceae or caper family. The Capparaceae family is a tropical and subtropical taxon of trees, shrubs, herbs and lianas consisting of approximately 417 species \unskip~\citep{872765:20209688,872765:20209687} The genus \textit{Maerua }Forssk has been recorded in tropical and southern Africa, and tropical Asia with about 60 species recorded from the African continent \unskip~\citep{872765:20209680}. The genus name "\textit{Maerua}" means "drooping" about the drooping foliage \unskip~\citep{872765:20209703}. The specific epithet ``\textit{triphylla}'' is a Greek word meaning ``three leaflets" about the trifoliate leaves that characterize the species.

\textit{Maerua triphylla} is variable and four varieties, namely var. \textit{calophylla} (Gilg) DeWolf, var. \textit{Johannis} (Volkens \& Gilg) DeWolf, var. \textit{pubescens} (Klotzsch) DeWolf and var. \textit{triphylla} have been described \unskip~\citep{872765:20209690}. However, in Kenya, where all four varieties have been recorded, it was found to be impossible to eliminate the varieties as the morphological characteristics appeared to be continuous \unskip~\citep{872765:20209684}. The English common names of \textit{M. triphylla }are ``small bead-bean'' and ``maerua'' \unskip~\citep{872765:20209695}. The synonyms associated with the name \textit{M. triphylla} include Crateva avicularis Burch. ex DC., \textit{C. caffra} Burch. ex DC., \textit{M. dupontii} Hemsl., \textit{M. jasminifolia }Gilg \& Gilg-Ben., \textit{M. pubescens }(Klotzsch) Gilg, \textit{M. trachycarpa}Gilg, \textit{M. trichocarpa }Gilg \& Gilg-Ben. and M\textit{. variifolia }Gilg \& Gilg-Ben \unskip~\citep{872765:20209689,872765:20209680}. \textit{Maerua triphylla} is an evergreen, erect or scandent tree or shrub, growing to a height of nine meters\unskip~\citep{872765:20209699}

The branches of \textit{M. triphylla} are dense, long, pendulous, young branches brown, glabrous with several lenticels and forming a round crown. The leaves are alternate, simple, trifoliate, with entire margins, dull grey-green, narrowly oval with a rounded apex. The flowers are small, regular, bisexual, cream to white, borne singly in the upper leaf axils. The fruit is a cylindrical capsule and constricted between the seeds, bluish-green at first, turning creamy-brown when ripe. The seeds are irregularly kidney-shaped, pale brown and obscurely warted. \textit{Maerua triphylla }has have been recorded in evergreen or deciduous bush land, wooded grassland, dry woodland, termite mounds, thickets and margins of the drier forests, along rivers and lakes. \textit{Maerua triphylla }has have been recorded in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Madagascar and Seychelles an altitude ranging from sea level to 2300 m above sea level \unskip~\citep{872765:20209680,872765:20209699}.

The leaves of \textit{M. triphylla} are eaten as leafy vegetables in Ethiopia and Tanzania \unskip~\citep{872765:20209711,872765:20209707} and also consumed as famine food \unskip~\citep{872765:20209684}. In Kenya and Tanzania, during periods of famine, the roots of \textit{M. triphylla} are boiled for a long time to remove toxic compounds and prepared as porridge \unskip~\citep{872765:20209686,872765:20209695}. The species is also important for bee forage \unskip~\citep{872765:20209684}. Wild and domesticated animals browse the leaves and shoots of \textit{M. triphylla} in Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda \unskip~\citep{872765:20209691,872765:20209700}. In East Africa, \textit{M. triphylla}is planted in rocky sites, and other degraded landscapes as a management strategy for soil reclamation, and the species is often spared when clearing land for agricultural purposes \unskip~\citep{872765:20209684}. \textit{Maerua triphylla} is one of the important medicinal plants in tropical Africa, and the species is included in the book ``Plant resources of tropical Africa 11(2): Medicinal plants 2'', a photographic guide to the most commonly used medicinal plants in tropical Africa \unskip~\citep{872765:20209684}. Therefore, \textit{M. triphylla} is a valuable plant species with potential for improving food and nutritional security and primary healthcare of local communities in tropical Africa. Thus, this review aims to provide an integrated and detailed appraisal of the existing knowledge on the ethnomedicinal uses and ethnobotany of \textit{M. triphylla}.
    
\section{Materials and Methods}
Results of the current study are based on a literature search on the ethnomedicinal uses and ethnobotany of \textit{M. triphylla} using information derived from several internet databases. The databases included Scopus, Google Scholar, PubMed and Science Direct. Other sources of information used included pre-electronic sources such as journal articles, theses, books, book chapters and other scientific articles obtained from the university library.
\bgroup
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\caption{\boldmath {Medicinal applications of \textit{Maerua triphylla }derived from literature records.}}
\label{f-c65f3d989308}
\end{figure}
\egroup

    
\section{Results and Discussion}
\textbf{Medicinal uses of } \textit{\textbf{Maerua triphylla}} \textbf{\space }

The fruit, leaf, root, stem bark and twig infusion and decoction of \textit{M. triphylla} are mainly used as ethnoveterinary medicine, aphrodisiac and antidote for poisoning, and traditional medicine for rheumatism, cancer, respiratory problems, snakebite, headache and gastrointestinal problems (Table~\ref{tw-244f1d8b6f39} ;Figure~\ref{f-c65f3d989308}). In Tanzania, the leaves of \textit{M. triphylla }are \textit{mixed with those of Boscia salicifolia Oliv and taken orally} as an antidote for poisoning and traditional medicine for tuberculosis \unskip~\citep{872765:20209694,872765:20209682}. In Kenya, the roots of \textit{M. triphylla }are mixed with those of \textit{Uvaria acuminata }Oliv and taken orally as traditional medicine for breast cancer, dizziness and hallucinations\unskip~\citep{872765:20209712}. 


\begingroup
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\caption{\boldmath {Medicinal uses of \textit{Maerua triphylla}} }
\label{tw-244f1d8b6f39}
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Antidote for \mbox{}\protect\newline poisoning &
  Leaf ash taken orally &
  \cAlignHack Mozambique and Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209684}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Antidote for \mbox{}\protect\newline poisoning &
  Leaves mixed with those of Boscia salicifoliaOliv. taken orally  &
  \cAlignHack Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209694,872765:20209682}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Aphrodisiac &
  Leaf, root and stem bark infusion and decoction are taken orally  &
  \cAlignHack Kenya and Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209694,872765:20209705}\\
Backache &
  Leaf infusion and decoction are taken orally &
  \cAlignHack Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209710}\\
Boils &
  Leaf ash applied topically &
  \cAlignHack Djibouti and Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209709,872765:20209701}\\
Burns &
  Leaf decoction applied topically &
  \cAlignHack Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209683}\\
 &
   &
   &
  \\
Cancer(breast and leukaemia) &
  Root and stem bark infusion and decoction are taken orally  &
  \cAlignHack Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209704,872765:20209693}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Cancer (breast) &
  Roots mixed with those of Uvaria acuminataOliv. taken orally &
  \cAlignHack Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209712}\\
Diphtheria &
  Leaf infusion and decoction are taken orally &
  \cAlignHack Djibouti &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209701,872765:20209681}\\
Dizziness &
  Roots mixed with those of U. acuminata taken orally &
  \cAlignHack Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209684,872765:20209712}\\
 &
   &
   &
  \\
Eye problems &
  Leaf maceration applied as a lotion &
  \cAlignHack Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209709,872765:20209684}\\
 &
   &
   &
  \\
Gastrointestinal problems \mbox{}\protect\newline (diarrhoea, gastric and stomach ache) &
  Bark, leaf and root infusion and decoction are taken orally &
  \cAlignHack Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209701,872765:20209684}\\
Hallucinations &
  Roots mixed with those of U. acuminata taken orally &
  \cAlignHack Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209712}\\
Headache and migraine &
  Leaf, root and stem bark infusion and decoction are taken orally  &
  \cAlignHack Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209694,872765:20209684}\\
Headache &
  Roots mixed with those of Capparis cartilaginea Decne. taken orally &
  \cAlignHack Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209712}\\
Loss of appetite &
  Leaf infusion and decoction are taken orally &
  \cAlignHack Ethiopia &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209702}\\
Malaria &
  Twig infusion and decoction are taken orally  &
  \cAlignHack Mozambique &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209684}\\
Marasmus and malnutrition &
  Roots boiled prepared as porridge &
  \cAlignHack Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209694,872765:20209684}\\
Menstrual problems &
  Leaves &
  \cAlignHack Ethiopia &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209702}\\
 &
   &
   &
  \\
Protective charm &
  Roots &
  \cAlignHack Uganda &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209696}\\
 &
   &
   &
  \\
Respiratory problems (asthma, chest pains, colds and cough) &
  Leaf and root infusion and decoction are taken orally. &
  \cAlignHack Kenya and Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209704,872765:20209712}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Tuberculosis &
  Leaves mixed with those of B. salicifolia  &
  \cAlignHack Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209694,872765:20209682}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Rheumatism &
  Fruit and root decoction applied topically &
  \cAlignHack Kenya and Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209704,872765:20209712}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Sexually transmitted infections (gonorrhoea and venereal diseases) &
  Root infusion and decoction are taken orally  &
  \cAlignHack Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209684,872765:20209712}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Snakebite &
  Root decoction applied topically &
  \cAlignHack Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209694,872765:20209695}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Snakebite &
  Roots mixed with those of U. acuminata and bark of Boscia angustifolia A. Rich. applied topically &
  \cAlignHack Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209712}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Tonic &
  Leaf and stem bark infusion and decoction are taken orally  &
  \cAlignHack Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209705}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Toothache &
  Roots mixed with those of C.cartilaginea and applied topically &
  \cAlignHack Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209712}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Vertigo &
  Root infusion and decoction are taken orally  &
  \cAlignHack Tanzania &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209694}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Wounds &
  Leaf, root and stem bark decoction applied topically &
  \cAlignHack Kenya &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209683,872765:20209705}\\
 &
   &
  \cAlignHack  &
  \\
Ethnoveterinary medicine (Babesiosis, red water disease, galactagogue and ticks) &
  Leaf infusion and decoction are taken orally or leaves mixed with those of Parvonia spp., \textit{Phytolacca} \textit{dodecandra }L'H{\'e}r. and \textit{Tagetes minuta} L. taken orally &
  \cAlignHack Ethiopia \mbox{}\protect\newline and Uganda &
  \unskip~\citep{872765:20209697,872765:20209685}\\
\tblbottomrule 
\end{longtable}
\endgroup
\makeatletter\@ifundefined{TwoColDocument}{}{\twocolumn}\makeatother 
Similarly, the roots of \textit{M. triphylla }are mixed with those of \textit{Capparis cartilaginea }Decne. As traditional medicine for headache, and the roots of \textit{M. triphylla} are mixed with those of \textit{U. acuminata} and bark of \textit{Boscia angustifolia} A. Rich. and used against snakebites \unskip~\citep{872765:20209712}. In Ethiopia, leaves of \textit{M. triphylla} are mixed with those of \textit{Parvonia} spp., \textit{Phytolacca dodecandra }L'H{\'e}r. and \textit{Tagetes minuta} L. and used as ethnoveterinary medicine for babesiosis or red water disease \unskip~\citep{872765:20209697}.

\textbf{Phytochemical and pharmacological properties of \textit{Maerua triphylla}}

The ethnobotanical data about \textit{M. triphylla} is related to three primary use categories which are centered around herbal medicine, fodder and a source of food, especially during difficult times. However, there is very little information available concerning the phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of the crude extracts or compounds isolated from the species. Little work has been done to characterize the nutritional attributes of \textit{M. triphylla}, but a report on its leaves showed high amounts of proteins averaging 21.4\% \unskip~\citep{872765:20209706,872765:20209684}. There is need for nutritional evaluation of both the leaves and roots of the species as \textit{M. triphylla} is widely used as wild food, both as supplementary and famine food \unskip~\citep{872765:20209711,872765:20209707}. There is also need to evaluate the toxicological properties of the species as uncooked roots are perceived as toxic, and boiling and re-boiling them several times is suggested to render them non-toxic and edible \unskip~\citep{872765:20209686,872765:20209698}.

\unskip~\citet{872765:20209708} identified the betaines and quaternary ammonium compounds such as 3-hydroxyprolinebetaine, glycine betaine, proline betaine and 3-hydroxy-1,1-dimethyl pyrrolidinium from dried aerial parts and branches of \textit{M. triphylla. }\unskip~\citet{872765:20209692} argued that quaternary ammonium compounds are potent biocides widely used in medical applications, cosmetics, disinfectants, surfactants and solvents. Some of these phytochemical compounds may be responsible for the biological activities of the species. \unskip~\citet{872765:20209685} evaluated the acaricidal activities of acetone and hexane extracts of \textit{M. triphylla} leaves against adult \textit{Rhipicephalus pulchellus }ticks. The extracts exhibited good repellent properties against the ticks at 10.0\% concentration. These findings support the use of leaf infusion and decoction against ticks in Ethiopia \unskip~\citep{872765:20209685}. \unskip~\citet{872765:20209693} evaluated the cytotoxicity activities of methanol: dichloromethane (1:1) extracts of M. triphylla leaves using the brine shrimp toxicity assay with Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. Anticancer compounds characterized it as a positive control. The extract exhibited moderate activities with median lethal concentration (LC\ensuremath{_{50}})value of 57.5\ensuremath{\mu }g/ml in comparison to LC\ensuremath{_{50}} value of 6.7 \ensuremath{\mu }g/ml exhibited by the positive control \unskip~\citep{872765:20209693}. Therefore, the brine shrimp assay results corroborate ethnomedicinal applications of the roots and stem bark of the species against breast cancer and leukaemia in Tanzania \unskip~\citep{872765:20209704,872765:20209693}.
    
\section{Conclusions}
\textit{Maerua triphylla }is known to be poisonous, and there is a need for detailed clinical and toxicological evaluations of crude extracts and compounds isolated from the species. Therefore, the widespread use of \textit{M. triphylla} as food plant and source of traditional medicines throughout its distributional range suggest that the species is not taken at toxic dosages. But the use of \textit{M. triphylla} as food and for the treatment of human diseases and ailments should be treated with caution and rigorous toxicological and clinical studies of the bark, fruits, leaves, roots and tubers, and compounds isolated from the species are necessary.
\section*{Acknowledgement}I am grateful to the reviewers who kindly commented on my manuscript.

\textbf{Funding Support}

The authors declare that they have no funding support for this study.

\textbf{Conflict of Interest}

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest for this study.
    

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