Gardenia ternifolia
          
           Schum. & Thonn. (Rubiaceae): Review of medicinal uses, phytochemistry and biological activities

Alfred Maroyi

doi:https://doi.org/10.26452/ijrps.v11i4.3238

Gardenia ternifolia Schum. & Thonn. (Rubiaceae): Review of medicinal uses, phytochemistry and biological activities

1 Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa, 0027406022322

Abstract

Gardenia ternifolia Schum. & Thonn. is a shrub or small tree widely used as a traditional medicine throughout its distributional range in tropical Africa. Gardenia ternifolia is widespread in tropical Africa, extending from Senegal eastwards to Ethiopia and Kenya, through the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) southwards to Namibia, South Africa and Mozambique. This study was aimed at providing a critical review of the medicinal uses, phytochemistry and biological activities of G. ternifolia. Documented information on the medicinal uses, phytochemistry and biological activities of G. ternifolia was collected from several online sources which included Scopus, Google Scholar, PubMed and Science Direct. Additional information was gathered from pre-electronic sources such as book chapters, books, journal articles and scientific publications obtained from the university library. This study showed that the species is widely used as an aphrodisiac and protective charm, and traditional medicine for headache, migraine, respiratory infections, sore eyes, hypertension, diabetes, gastro-intestinal problems, erectile dysfunction, malaria, convulsions and epilepsy. Phytochemical compounds identified from the species include alkaloids, anthocyanins, coumarins, flavonoids, phenols, quinones, saponins, steroids, stereoisomeric neolignans, tannins and terpenoids. Pharmacological research revealed that G. ternifolia extracts and compounds isolated from the species have antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antileishmanial, antioxidant, antiplasmodial, antisickling, antitheilerial, hepatotoxicity, larvicidal and cytotoxicity activities. Future research on G. ternifolia should focus on detailed phytochemical evaluations, including toxicological, in vivo and clinical studies to corroborate the traditional medical applications of the species.

Keywords

Gardenia Ternifolia, Ethnopharmacology, Herbal Medicine, Indigenous Pharmacopoeia, Rubiaceae, Tropical Africa

Introduction

Gardenia ternifolia Schum. & Thonn. is a shrub or small tree belonging to the Rubiaceae family. The genus Gardenia J. Ellis comprises of about 140 species recorded in Africa, Madagascar, East and Southeast Asia, western Pacific and Hawaiian islands (Wong & Low, 2011). The genus name is in honor of Alexander Garden (1730-1791), a Scottish physician, botanist and zoologist who lived in Charleston, South Carolina and was a correspondent of Carl Linnaeus. The species name “ternifolia” is derived from the Latin word “ternifolius” which means leaves in threes. Three infra specific taxa of G. ternifolia are recognized, and these include G. ternifolia subsp. jovis-tonantis (Welw.) Verdc., G. ternifolia subsp. jovis-tonantis var. jovis-tonantis (Welw.) Aubrév., G. ternifolia subsp. jovis-tonantis var. goetzei (Stapf & Hutch.) Verdc., and G. ternifolia subsp. ternifolia (Verdcourt, 1979). In ethnobotanical literature, the infra specific taxa of G. ternifolia are rarely mentioned (Gelfand, Mavi, Drummond, & Ndemera, 1985). Therefore, in this study, G. ternifolia sensu lato is used throughout the manuscript. The bark of G. ternifolia is grey to yellowish-brown in color, smooth or slightly rough and peeling off in round pieces in thicker and older trees. The leaves are usually in whorls of three, clustered near the ends of short rigid branchlets.

The flowers are white to yellow while the fruits are oval, finely velvety and yellowish-brown in color. Gardenia ternifolia is widespread in tropical Africa, extending from Senegal eastwards to Ethiopia and Kenya, through the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) southwards to Namibia, South Africa and Mozambique (Hutchings, Scott, Lewis, & Cunningham, 1996). Gardenia ternifolia has been recorded in poor, rocky, compacted sandy and laterite soils, in wooded grassland, on kopjes, termite mounds, along streams and seasonally inundated vleis at sea level to 2100 m above sea level. The branches of G. ternifolia are used as toothbrushes while the young leaves are cooked as leafy vegetables in west Africa. The fruits of G. ternifolia are sold as traditional medicines in informal herbal medicine markets in South Africa. It is, therefore, within this context that the current study was undertaken aimed at documenting the pharmacological properties, phytochemistry and medicinal uses of G. ternifolia.

Materials and Methods

Results of the current study are based on a literature search on phytochemistry, pharmacological properties and medicinal uses of G. ternifolia using information derived from several internet databases. The databases included Scopus, Google Scholar, PubMed and Science Direct. Other sources of information such as pre-electronic sources which included journal articles, theses, books, book chapters and other scientific articles were gathered from the university library.

Results and Discussion

Medicinal uses of Gardenia ternifolia

The aerial parts, bark, fruit and roots of G. ternifolia are mainly used as an aphrodisiac and protective charm, and traditional medicine for headache, migraine, respiratory infections, sore eyes, hypertension, diabetes, gastro-intestinal problems, erectile dysfunction, malaria, convulsions and epilepsy (Table 1, Figure 1). Other medicinal applications of G. ternifolia that have been recorded in two countries and supported by at least two literature records include the use of the species as ethnoveterinary medicine in Cameroon and Ethiopia, and traditional medicine for earache in South Africa and Zimbabwe, infertility (Benin and Zimbabwe), insanity (Malawi and Uganda), sexually transmitted infections (Ghana and Guinea), skin infections (Ghana and Guinea) and snake bites (Kenya and Uganda) (Table 1).

https://typeset-prod-media-server.s3.amazonaws.com/article_uploads/412c586d-ac13-49fb-8e3d-378ad2a7d307/image/b9c7a1fe-e845-4463-8866-64017d5eb8ad-upicture1.png — **Figure 1: Major medicinal uses of Gardenia ternifolia in tropical Africa.**

Nutritional and phytochemical composition of Gardenia ternifolia

Several researchers investigated the nutritional and phytochemical properties of G. ternifolia (Table 2 ). A wide variety of nutrients associated with different plant parts of G. ternifolia (Table 2) imply that the species could be a source of health-promoting nutrients such as calcium, carbohydrates, copper, crude fibre, fat, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, proteins, sodium and zinc. Phytochemical compounds identified from the aerial parts, fruits, leaves, roots and stem bark of G. ternifolia include alkaloids, anthocyanins, coumarins, flavonoids, phenols, quinones, saponins, steroids, stereoisomeric neolignans, tannins and terpenoids. Some of these chemical compounds may be responsible for the biological activities of the species.

Biological activities of Gardenia ternifolia

Pharmacological research revealed that different extracts of G. ternifolia and compounds isolated from the species have various biological activities such as antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antileishmanial, antioxidant, antiplasmodial, antisickling, antitheilerial, hepatotoxicity, larvicidal and cytotoxicity activities.

Table 1: Medicinal uses of Gardenia ternifolia.

Medicinal use	Part used	Country	Reference
Amebiasis	Leaves	DRC	(Ngbolua, Mpiana, Mudogo, & Ngombe, 2014)

Aphrodisiac and erectile dysfunction	Roots	Angola, DRC, Mali and Tanzania	(Ahua, Ioset, Ioset, Diallo, & Mauël, 2007; Göhre, Toto-Nienguesse, Futuro, & Neinhuis, 2016)

Boost immune system	Bark	Uganda	(Anywar et al., 2020)

Breast cancer	Root	Togo	(Kola et al., 2020)

Convulsions and epilepsy	Bark, leaves and roots	Angola, South Africa, Tanzania and Togo	(Kantati et al., 2016; Moshi, Cosam, Mbwambo, Kapingu, & Nkunya, 2004)

Diabetes	Leaves	Angola, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Nigeria	(Göhre et al., 2016; Olabanji et al., 2008)
Earache	Fruits	South Africa and Zimbabwe	(Gelfand et al., 1985; Hutchings et al., 1996)
Fever	Leaves	Togo	(Koudouvo et al., 2011)

Gastro-intestinal problems (diarrhoea, dysentery and stomach pains)	Bark, leaves and roots	Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Mali and Mozambique	(Bruschi, Morganti, Mancini, & Signorini, 2011; Silva et al., 1996)

Haemorrhoids	Fruits	Ethiopia	(Yineger & Yewhalaw, 2007)
Headache and migraine	Leaves and roots	Togo, Uganda and Zimbabwe	(Gelfand et al., 1985; Koudouvo et al., 2011)
Hernia	Leaves	Angola	(Göhre et al., 2016)

Hypertension	Aerial parts and roots	Cameroon, Tanzania and Togo	(Koudouvo et al., 2011; Moshi et al., 2004)
Induce labour	Bark and roots	Mozambique	(Bruschi et al., 2011)

Infertility	Roots	Benin and Zimbabwe	(Gelfand et al., 1985; Klotoé, Agbodjento, Dougnon, & Yovo, 2020)
Insanity	Roots	Malawi and Uganda	(Gelfand et al., 1985)

Jaundice	Roots	Mali	(Ahua et al., 2007)

Malaria	Fruits, leaves, roots, root bark and stem bark	Angola, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Mali, Rwanda, South Africa and Togo	(Lautenschläger, Monizi, Pedro, & JLMandombe, 2018; Nadembega, Boussim, Nikiema, Poli, & Antognoni, 2011)
Malnutrition	Fruits	Burkina Faso	(Nadembega et al., 2011)
Measles	Fruits, leaves and stems	Angola	(Göhre et al., 2016; Lautenschläger et al., 2018)
Menstrual problems	Roots	Zimbabwe	(Gelfand et al., 1985)

Pain	Leaves and stems	Angola	(Lautenschläger et al., 2018)
Parasites	Fruits	Angola	(Lautenschläger et al., 2018)
Parkinson diseases	Leaves	Togo	(Kantati et al., 2016)

Protective charm (evil spirits, lightning and witchcraft)	Bark, branches, roots and twigs	Angola, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe	(Bruschi et al., 2011; Gelfand et al., 1985)

Respiratory infections (asthma, pneumonia and tuberculosis)	Bark, fruits and roots	Cameroon, Mozambique and Zimbabwe	(Bruschi et al., 2011; Gelfand et al., 1985)

Sexually transmitted infections (including syphilis)	Leaves and root bark	Ghana and Guinea	(Larsen, Soelberg, & Jäger, 2015)

Skin infections	Leaves	Ghana and Guinea	(Larsen et al., 2015)

Snake bites	Roots	Kenya and Uganda	(Anywar et al., 2020)

Sore eyes	Fruits and roots	Ethiopia, Kenya and Zimbabwe	(Gelfand et al., 1985)

Toothache	Fruits	Angola	(Lautenschläger et al., 2018)

Trypanosomiasis	Fruits	Angola	(Vahekeni et al., 2020)

Typhoid fever	Bark	Cameroon	(Tsobou, Mapongmetsem, & Damme, 2013)

Ulcers	Leaves	Ghana	(Larsen et al., 2015)

Urinary infections	The root decoction is taken orally	Guinea-Bissau	(Silva et al., 1996)

Ethnoveterinary medicine (anthelmintic and ulcerative lymphangitis)	Leaves and roots	Cameroon and Ethiopia	(Tsobou et al., 2013; Yineger et al., 2007)

Antibacterial activities

Silva et al. (1996) evaluated the antibacterial activities of ethanol extract of G. ternifolia roots against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella typhimurium, Streptococcus faecalis, Vibrio cholera, Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli and Staphylococcus aureus using agar diffusion method. The extract exhibited activities against Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli and Staphylococcus aureus with zones of inhibition ranging from 9.0 mm to 14.0 mm (Silva et al., 1996).

Magassouba et al. (2007) evaluated the antibacterial activities of methanol extract of G. ternifolia root bark mixed with those of Swartzia madagascariensis Desv., Isoberlinia Doka Craib & Stapf, Annona senegalensis Pers., Terminalia glaucescens Planch. Ex Benth., and leaves of Erythrina senegalensis DC. against Staphylococcus aureus using broth dilution method with rifampicin as a positive control. The extract exhibited activities against tested pathogens with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of 62.5 µl/ml (Magassouba et al., 2007).

Pesewu, Cutler, and Humber (2008) evaluated the antibacterial activities of ethanol, water, chloroform and blender extracts of G. ternifolia leaves against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus Vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Streptococcus pyogenes using agar-well diffusion and microdilution methods. The ethanol, water and blender extracts exhibited activities against Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes with inhibition zones ranging from 8.0 mm to 18.0 mm, and MIC and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values ranging from 12.5 mg/ml to >50.0 mg/ml (Pesewu et al., 2008).

Ngbolua et al. (2014) evaluated the antibacterial activities of anthocyanins and organic acids isolated from G. ternifolia leaves against Lactobacillus fermentum, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli using agar disc diffusion and broth micro-dilution methods. The anthocyanin and organic acid extracts exhibited activities with MIC and MBC values ranging from 62.5 μg/mL to >500.0 μg/mL (Ngbolua et al., 2014).

Roger, Pierre-Marie, Igor, and Patrick (2015) evaluated the antibacterial activities of ethanol extract of G. ternifolia bark against Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi using agar well diffusion and microdilution methods with ciprofloxacin (10.0 µl/ml) as a positive control. The extract exhibited weak activities against Salmonella typhi with inhibition zone ranging from 9.5 mm to 11.0 mm, MIC value of 512.0 µl/ml and MBC value of 2048.0 µl/ml (Roger et al., 2015).

Antiviral activities

Silva, Barbosa, Diniz, Valdeira, and Gomes (1997) evaluated the antiviral activities of ethanol extract of G. ternifolia roots against Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and African swine fever virus (ASFV). The extract exhibited activities with HSV-1 and ASFV exhibiting inhibition effect of 60.0% and 80.0%, respectively.

Anti-inflammatory activities

Larsen et al. (2015) evaluated the anti-inflammatory activities of ethanol extract of G. ternifolia leaves using the cyclooxygenase-1 assay. The extract exhibited inhibitory activities over 90.0% in the final concentration of 0.1 μg/μL (Larsen et al., 2015).

Pompermaier et al. (2018) evaluated the anti-inflammatory activities of methanol extract of G. ternifolia seeds at 10.0 µg/mL, 50.0 µg/mL and 100.0 µg/mL concentrations to assess their inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX)−2 expression and on nitric oxide (NO) release in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated J774A.1 macrophages. At a concentration of 10.0 µg/mL to 100.0 µg/mL, inhibition on COX-2 expression and NO release ranged from 61.7% to 91.1% (Pompermaier et al., 2018).

Antileishmanial activities

Ahua et al. (2007) evaluated the antileishmanial activities of dichloromethane, water and methanol extracts of G. ternifolia root bark against both extracellular and intracellular forms of Leishmania major using an antileishmanial assay with amphotericin B as a positive control. The water extract exhibited activities that were comparable to activities exhibited by the positive control.

Antioxidant activities

Mpiana, Ngbolua, Tshibangu, Mwanangombo, and Tsalu (2015) evaluated the antioxidant activities of methanol, ethyl acetate and anthocyanin extracts of G. ternifolia leaves using the 1,1-diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging assay with ascorbic acid as a positive control. The extracts exhibited activities with half-maximal effective concentration (EC₅₀) values ranging from 0.9 μg/ml to 1.3 μg/ml (Mpiana et al., 2015).

Awas, Omosa, Midiwo, Ndakala, and Mwaniki (2016) evaluated the antioxidant activities of the compounds 3,5,3′-trihydroxy-7,4′-dimethoxy flavone, 5,7-trihydroxy-4′-methoxy flavone, 5,7-dihydroxy-3,4′-dimethoxy flavone, 5,4′-dihydroxy-7-methoxyflavanone and 3,4′dimethoxy-5,7-diacetyl flavone isolated from the leaves of G. ternifolia using the DPPH free radical scavenging assay with quercetin as the positive control.

Table 2: Nutritional and phytochemical composition of Gardenia ternifolia.

Nutritional and phytochemical components	Value	Plant part	Reference
Nutritional components

Aluminium (ppm)	1010.0	Leaves	(Olabanji et al., 2008)

Ash (%)	3.5	Fruit pulp	(Jacob, Mann, Adeshina, & Ndamitso, 2016)

Bromine (ppm)	24.0	Leaves	(Olabanji et al., 2008)

Calcium (mg/100g)	66.0	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Carbohydrates (%)	57.8	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Chlorine (ppm)	3270.0	Leaves	(Olabanji et al., 2008)

Cobalt (ppm)	<11.0	Leaves	(Olabanji et al., 2008)

Copper (mg/100g)	0.3	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Crude fat (%)	2.2	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Crude fibre (%)	19.7	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Crude protein (%)	5.2	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Energy (kcal/100g)	280.5	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Iron (mg/100g)	1.9	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Magnesium (mg/100g)	71.1	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Manganese (mg/100g)	2.5	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Moisture (%)	10.8	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Nickel (ppm)	10.0	Leaves	(Olabanji et al., 2008)

Phosphorus (ppm)	1440.0	Leaves	(Olabanji et al., 2008)
Potassium (mg/100g)	343.3	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)

Rubidium (ppm)	27.0	Leaves	(Olabanji et al., 2008)
Silicon (ppm)	2650.0	Leaves	(Olabanji et al., 2008)

Sodium (mg/100g)	231.5	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)
Strontium (ppm)	179.0	Leaves	(Olabanji et al., 2008)

Sulfur (ppm)	2120.0	Leaves	(Olabanji et al., 2008)
Titanium (ppm)	47.0	Leaves	(Olabanji et al., 2008)

Vitamin C (mg/100g)	12.5	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)
Zinc (mg/100g)	1.3	Fruit pulp	(Jacob et al., 2016)
Phytochemical component

3,4′dimethoxy-5,7-diacetylflavone	-	Leaves	(Awas et al., 2016)

3,5,3′-trihydroxy-7,4′-dimethoxyflavone	-	Leaves	(Awas et al., 2016)

4,5-Dihydroxy-6,7-dimethoxyflavanone	-	Aerial parts	(Ochieng, Mid, & Owu, 2010)

5,4′-dihydroxy-7-methoxyflavanone	-	Leaves	(Awas et al., 2016)

5,7-dihydroxy-3,4′-dimethoxyflavone	-	Leaves	(Awas et al., 2016)

5,7-trihydroxy-4′-methoxy flavone	-	Leaves	(Awas et al., 2016)

Alkaloid (%)	8.0	Leaves	(Dahiru, 2015)

β-amyrin	-	Fruits	(Ghazali, Abdalla, Egami, Magboul, & Hamed, 2004)

Geniposide	-	Fruits	(Ghazali et al., 2004)

Gardenifolins A − H	-	Stem bark	(Tshitenge, Feineis, Awale, & Bringmann, 2017)

Kaempferol-7-O-methyl ether	-	Aerial parts	(Ochieng et al., 2010)

Naringenin-7-O-methyl ether	-	Aerial parts	(Ochieng et al., 2010)

Naringenin-4,7-O-dimethyl-ether	-	Aerial parts	(Ochieng et al., 2010)

Oleanolic acid	-	Fruits	(Ghazali et al., 2004)

Phenols (%)	2.3	Leaves	(Dahiru, 2015)

Quercetin-4,7-O-dimethyl ether	-	Aerial parts	(Ochieng et al., 2010)

Saponins (%)	12.0	Leaves	(Dahiru, 2015)

β-sitosterol	-	Aerial parts and leaves	(Awas et al., 2016; Ochieng et al., 2010)

Stigmasterol	-	Aerial parts and leaves	(Awas et al., 2016; Ochieng et al., 2010)

Tannins (%)	10.0	Leaves	(Dahiru, 2015)

Terpenoids (%)	10.0	Leaves	(Dahiru, 2015)

Total flavonoids (μg/g)	5.0 – 15.0	Roots	(Klotoé et al., 2020)

Total polyphenols (mg/g)	19.0 – 25.0	Roots	(Klotoé et al., 2020)

The compounds exhibited activities with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values ranging from 40.3 μM to >100.0 μM in comparison to IC₅₀ value of 20.1 μM exhibited by the positive control (Awas et al., 2016). Klotoé et al. (2020) evaluated the antioxidant activities of aqueous, hydro-ethanolic and ethanolic extracts of G. ternifolia roots using the DPPH free radical scavenging assay and ferric reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP) with butylhydroxytoluene and vitamin C as positive controls. The extracts exhibited activities with IC₅₀ values in DPPH and FRAP, ranging from 1.5 mg/ml to 21.0 mg/ml (Klotoé et al., 2020).

Antiplasmodial activities

Ochieng et al. (2010) evaluated the anti-plasmodial activities of acetone and methanol extracts of G. ternifolia aerial parts and the compounds naringenin-7-O-methyl ether, quercetin-4,7-O-dimethyl ether, kaempferol-7-O-methyl ether, 4,5-dihydroxy-6,7-dimethoxyflavanone, naringenin-4,7-O-dimethyl-ether, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol isolated from the aerial parts of the species against chloroquine-resistant and chloroquine-sensitive strains of Plasmodium falciparum using an automated microdilution technique with crude extract of Artemisia annua and chloroquine as positive controls. The extracts and the compounds β-sitosterol, quercetin-4,7-O-dimethyl ether, kaempferol-7-O-methyl ether and naringenin-7-O-methyl ether exhibited activities with IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.9 μg/mL to 17.0 μg/mL (Ochieng et al., 2010). (Nureye, Assefa, Nedi, & Engidawork, 2018) evaluated the antiplasmodial activities of methanol crude extract, aqueous, butanol and chloroform fractions of G. ternifolia root bark using a 4-day suppressive test against Plasmodium berghei (ANKA strain) in Swiss albino mice. The chemo suppressive effect exerted by the crude extract and fractions ranged from 14.0% to 59.0% (Nureye et al., 2018).

Antisickling activities

Mpiana et al. (2015) evaluated the antisickling activities of methanol and ethyl acetate fractions, and anthocyanin crude extracts of G. ternifolia leaves on sickle erythrocytes by the Emmel’s test. The extracts exhibited antisickling activities (Mpiana et al., 2015).

Ngbolua et al. (2014) evaluated the antisickling activities of anthocyanins, and organic acids isolated from G. ternifolia leaves using Emmel. The anthocyanin and organic acid extracts exhibited activities with normalization rates ranging from 68.0% to 72.0% at a concentration of 6.25 µg/mL (Ngbolua et al., 2014).

Antitheilerial activities

Hayat and Tigani (2012) evaluated the antitheilerial activities of aqueous extracts of G. ternifolia fruits against Theileria lestoquardi using the lymphocyte cells infected with the parasite. The extract exhibited activities against Theileria lestoquardi macroschizonts.

Hepatotoxicity activities

Dahiru (2015) evaluated the hepatotoxicity activities of aqueous extracts of G. ternifolia leaves against carbon tetra chloride (CCl₄)-induced hepatotoxicity in albino rats. Pretreatment of rats 100.0 mg/kg, 200.0 mg/kg and 400.0 mg/kg body weight of the extract before administration of CCl₄ exhibited moderate protective effects by lowering the levels of serum enzymes and also revealed moderate necrosis.

Larvicidal activities

Ochieng et al. (2010) evaluated the larvicidal activities of acetone and methanol extracts of G. ternifolia aerial parts and the compounds naringenin-7-O-methyl ether, quercetin-4,7-O-dimethyl ether, kaempferol-7-O-methyl ether, 4,5-dihydroxy-6,7-dimethoxyflavanone, naringenin-4,7-O-dimethyl-ether, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol isolated from the aerial parts of the species against the second-instar larvae of Aedes aegypti larvae using in vitro larvicidal activity assay. The extracts and the compounds quercetin-4,7-O-dimethyl ether, kaempferol-7-O-methyl ether and naringenin-7-O-methyl ether exhibited activities with half-maximal lethal concentration (LC₅₀) values ranging from 18.3 μg/mL to 81.6 μg/mL (Ochieng et al., 2010).

Cytotoxicity activities

Moshi et al. (2004) evaluated the cytotoxicity activities of 20.0% aqueous ethanol extract of G. ternifolia roots using the brine shrimp lethality test. The extract exhibited activities with an LC₅₀ value of 54.5 μg/ml (Moshi et al., 2004). Tshibangu, Divakar, Ramanathan, and Syamala (2016) evaluated the cytotoxicity activities of chloroform, ethyl acetate, 80% methanol, methanol petroleum-ether and paclitaxel extracts of G. ternifolia leaves against human prostate cancer (PC-3), breast cancer (MCF-7) and non-cancerous rat skeletal muscle (L6) cell lines using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The extracts exhibited activities with half-maximal cytotoxic concentration (CC₅₀) values ranging from 9.7 µg/mL to >100.0 µg/mL (Tshibangu et al., 2016). Tshitenge et al. (2017) evaluated the cytotoxicity activities of the compounds gardenifolin A to H isolated from the stem bark of G. ternifolia against human cervical HeLa cell line using the Cell Counting Kit-8 with 5-fluorouracil as reference drug. The compounds exhibited activities with IC₅₀ values ranging from 21.0 μM to 105.0 μM in comparison to the IC₅₀ value of 13.9 μM exhibited by the reference drug (Tshitenge et al., 2017).

Conclusions

Some reports in the literature indicate that the roots of G. ternifolia could be poisonous. Therefore, there is a need for detailed clinical and toxicological evaluations of crude extracts and compounds isolated from the species. Therefore, the use of G. ternifolia as traditional medicine for the treatment of human diseases and ailments should be treated with caution and rigorous toxicological and clinical studies are recommended.

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